docs: address community issue feedback (#5 #338 #142 #246 #136 #303)

- const README: rewrite the space-saving claim per issue #5 follow-ups
  (constant-expression const vs #define immediates; which const qualify
  as constant expressions)
- const README: fix the class-section diagnosis per issue #338 (overload
  resolution picks the const overload; the restriction only surfaces
  once that overload is removed)
- sizeof README: virtual-inheritance result is compiler-dependent
  (GCC merges vbptr+vfptr -> 16, MSVC keeps them separate -> 32) #246
- static README: new section on internal linkage / access restriction
  with anonymous-namespace comparison #142
- 10-day practice: full problem list table + fixed day links #136
- new design_pattern/singleton/singleton_default.hpp: reusable
  thread-safe CRTP singleton template, compile+concurrency tested #303
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> 来自 [C++那些事网站](https://light-city.github.io/stories_things/cpp-things/cpp-const-family/) 的文章,由站点同步脚本导出。
# C++ const 全家桶
大纲
- const
- constexpr
- C++20
- consteval
- constinit
**注:本文所有代码示例已放星球。**
## 1.const
`const` 是我们在学习 C++/C 时最早接触的关键字之一,通常作为 `cv-qualifier` 使用,表示对象不可变。它并不保证 **编译时评估**,具体何时评估由编译器决定。例如:
```cpp
const int a = 1; // 编译时
const auto x = getdata(); // 运行时
```
const有时可以用于编译时常量表达式,但是有一些例外,例如:
```cpp
const double count_1 = 3.3;
std::array<double, static_cast<int>(count_1)> moreDoubles1 {1.1, 2.2, 3.3};
```
此时便会报错:the value of 'count_1' is not usable in a constant expression
但是这样是正常的:
```cpp
const int count = 3;
std::array<double, count> doubles {1.1, 2.2, 3.3};
```
本质在于编译时表达式求值,于是C++11引入了constexpr。
## 2.constexpr
constexpr 可以用来指定变量的值可以出现在常量表达式,此时只需要将前面例子的const变为constexpr,便可以正常运行。
```cpp
constexpr double count_2 = 3.3;
std::array<double, static_cast<int>(count_2)> moreDoubles2 {1.1, 2.2, 3.3};
```
`constexpr` 并不一定只能在编译时执行。它的本质含义是 **可以** 在编译时计算,但如果在运行时使用 `constexpr` 变量或函数,它也可以在运行时执行。
例如:result1与result2完全不一样,result1是编译时计算,但是result2是运行时计算的,抛个疑问:**你知道为什么吗?**
所以并不是指定了constexpr的函数它就一定是编译时计算的。
```cpp
constexpr int compileTimeSum(int a, int b) {
return a + b;
}
int main() {
constexpr int result1 = compileTimeSum(3, 5);
int x = 10;
int result2 = compileTimeSum(x, 20);
return 0;
}
```
那么谁能保证呢?于是C++20来了。
## 3.C++20
### 3.1 consteval
consteval解决了上面的问题,它只能用于函数,并强制所有调用在编译时进行。如果我们此时将上面的constexpr改为consteval,此时result2会发生什么呢?
那便是报错:call to consteval function '**compileTimeSum(x, 20)**' is not a constant expression
```cpp
consteval int compileTimeSum(int a, int b) {
return a + b;
}
int main() {
constexpr int result1 = compileTimeSum(3, 5);
int x = 10;
int result2 = compileTimeSum(x, 20);
return 0;
}
```
如果使用了consteval使用在变量上,也会报错:**error:** a variable cannot be declared '**consteval**'。
> https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/consteval
### 3.2 constinit
constinit可以强制静态或线程局部变量进行常量初始化。
- 不能与 constexpr、consteval 一起使用
- 一个非类型说明符,作用是assert
- 保证变量是静态初始化
- 只能用于 static 或者 thread_local
例如:下面会编译报错:error: 'constinit' can only be applied to a variable with static or thread storage duration
```cpp
constinit int a = 100;
int main() {
++a;
constinit auto b = 100; // error
// b has thread storage duration
constinit thread_local auto b = 100;
}
```